The Dhvani Theory by Anandvardhana: a comprehensive analysis
The Dhvani Theory, or the theory of suggestion, is one of the most profound and influential concepts in the field of Indian literary criticism and aesthetics (Sanskrit poetics). Attributed to the eminent 9th-century Sanskrit scholar and aesthetician Ānandavardhana, the theory of Dhvani revolutionized the way literature, especially poetry, was understood and interpreted in classical Indian tradition. It proposed that the soul of poetry lies not in the literal meaning (abhidha) or even in the implied meaning (lakṣaṇā), but in the suggested meaning (vyaṅgyārtha), which transcends the surface level of language and touches deeper emotional and aesthetic layers. The theory of Dhvani marks a significant evolution in Sanskrit literary theory and became the central idea around which all subsequent discussions of poetics revolved.
The word "Dhvani" in Sanskrit literally means "sound" or "resonance," but in the context of literary theory, it refers to a suggestive quality in poetry — a resonance or reverberation of meaning that goes beyond what is explicitly stated. Ānandavardhana articulated this theory in his seminal work Dhvanyāloka ("The Light on Suggestion"), where he argued that poetry achieves its highest form when it conveys emotions, ideas, or aesthetic experiences through suggestion rather than direct expression.
Prior to Ānandavardhana, Indian poetics was dominated by other schools of thought that emphasized different elements of literary composition. For instance, the Rīti school emphasized stylistic excellence, the Alaṅkāra school focused on the use of figures of speech, and the Rasa theory, most famously elaborated by Bharata in his Nāṭyaśāstra, concentrated on aesthetic experience or emotional flavor. However, these approaches primarily focused on the structural, formal, or emotional components of poetry without fully explaining how poetry could evoke deep and often ineffable responses in the audience. It was Ānandavardhana who introduced the idea that suggestion — the ability of poetry to imply meanings beyond its literal content — is the true essence of poetic art.
According to Ānandavardhana, there are three primary functions or levels of meaning in language: abhidha (denotation), lakṣaṇā (implication), and vyañjanā (suggestion). Abhidha refers to the direct, dictionary meaning of a word. Lakṣaṇā is the secondary or contextual meaning that a word may assume when the literal meaning is inapplicable. For example, when we say "the village is on the Ganges," we do not mean the village is physically situated on the water but rather on its banks — this shift in meaning is lakṣaṇā. However, both these forms of meaning are still rationally accessible and relatively straightforward.
Vyañjanā, the third and highest level, is where Dhvani emerges. It refers to the process through which the words and sentences of poetry suggest meanings that are not directly expressed but are evoked in the mind of the sensitive reader or listener. These suggested meanings can include a wide range of elements: emotions, moods, moral undertones, philosophical insights, or any form of latent meaning that arises from the text but cannot be pinned down to the literal words used. In this process, the reader becomes an active participant in creating meaning, and the poem functions more as a field of resonance than as a straightforward message.
Ānandavardhana classified Dhvani into three broad types:
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Vastu-dhvani (suggestion of idea or content) – Here, the suggested meaning is a concept or an idea not explicitly stated. For example, a poem may describe a natural scene, but what it actually suggests is a political condition or philosophical truth.
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Alaṅkāra-dhvani (suggestion of poetic figure) – In this type, a poetic figure such as metaphor or simile is suggested rather than explicitly stated.
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Rasa-dhvani (suggestion of emotion or aesthetic experience) – This is the most important and the highest form of Dhvani, where the poem suggests a rasa or aesthetic flavor, such as love, valor, sorrow, or tranquility. According to Ānandavardhana, this is the very essence of poetry.
Among these, rasa-dhvani is considered the most significant because it brings about the aesthetic experience that is central to poetic enjoyment. For example, in a romantic poem, the words may merely describe a moonlit night and a gentle breeze, but what is really being conveyed is the feeling of love, longing, or bliss — the śṛṅgāra rasa. The literal description is just a vehicle for the suggested emotional world.
One of the most powerful aspects of the Dhvani theory is its implicit acknowledgment of the reader's role in constructing meaning. Unlike theories that emphasize authorial intention or formal features of the text, Dhvani assumes that the reader or listener plays a crucial part in the aesthetic experience. The suggested meanings arise not from the words alone but from the resonance they create in the cultured and receptive mind of the reader, often referred to as the sahridaya — one who has a "similar heart" or a refined sensitivity.
The concept of the sahridaya is central to understanding how Dhvani works. It suggests that only a reader who possesses aesthetic sensibility and emotional responsiveness can truly grasp the suggested meaning and experience rasa. Thus, the poem and the reader co-create the aesthetic experience through the medium of Dhvani. This concept anticipates some of the concerns of modern reader-response theories in Western literary criticism, which argue that meaning is not fixed in the text but is generated through the interaction between text and reader.
Ānandavardhana’s ideas were further developed and reinforced by the great aesthetician Abhinavagupta in his commentary Locana on Dhvanyāloka. Abhinavagupta, who was also a major exponent of the Rasa theory, harmonized Dhvani with rasa by asserting that rasa is always realized through vyañjanā. In his view, the highest aim of poetry is to produce rasa through Dhvani, and therefore these two theories are not in competition but are complementary. According to Abhinavagupta, while rasa is the end or goal of poetry, Dhvani is the means by which that goal is attained.
The influence of the Dhvani theory was immense in Indian poetics. It led to a shift in focus from external ornamentation and formal devices to the inner essence and emotional power of poetry. It provided a comprehensive framework to explain why some poems move us deeply even though they may not use elaborate rhetorical devices or complex meters. It also placed a new emphasis on the subtle, the implicit, and the ineffable in literary language, thereby recognizing the unique power of poetry to express what cannot be fully articulated.
Moreover, Dhvani was a deeply integrative theory. It did not reject earlier schools of poetics but synthesized and transcended them. Figures of speech (alaṅkāras), styles (rītis), and emotions (rasas) all had their place, but they were subordinated to the higher principle of suggestion. In this way, Dhvani theory served as a unifying concept in Indian poetics, bringing together various strands of aesthetic thought into a coherent and holistic vision.
The philosophical underpinnings of Dhvani are also worth noting. The theory draws from the broader Indian philosophical idea that language has limitations and that the highest truths, whether spiritual or aesthetic, are often beyond verbal expression. Just as in the Upaniṣadic tradition it is said that the ultimate reality is "beyond words" (yato vāco nivartante), so in poetry the most profound meanings are those that are suggested, not said. Thus, Dhvani becomes a bridge between the verbal and the transcendental, between form and formlessness, between the spoken word and the unspoken emotion.
In conclusion, the Dhvani theory stands as one of the most sophisticated and far-reaching contributions to the field of literary criticism and aesthetics, not only in Indian tradition but in global literary thought. Its emphasis on suggestion, emotional resonance, and reader participation provides a rich and nuanced understanding of how poetry works. By locating the essence of poetry in the vyaṅgyārtha, or suggested meaning, Ānandavardhana elevated the function of poetry from mere ornamentation or message-bearing to a powerful medium of aesthetic experience and emotional insight. In doing so, he gave Indian poetics a depth and maturity that continues to inspire scholars, poets, and aestheticians across cultures and generations. The legacy of Dhvani lies in its recognition that the true beauty of poetry lies not in what is said, but in what is evoked — in the silent music that echoes beyond the words.