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An allomorph is a different form of the same morpheme. It changes its sound or spelling, but its meaning stays the same. It helps in understanding how words change in different situations. A morpheme can have different allomorphs depending on pronunciation or grammar. The meaning does not change. The form changes based on the sounds or structure of the word. Types of Allomorphs 1. Phonological Allomorph A phonological allomorph changes its pronunciation based on nearby sounds. Examples: The plural "-s" sounds different in different words: "cats" (/s/ sound) "dogs" (/z/ sound) "buses" (/ɪz/ sound) The past tense "-ed" sounds different in different words: "walked" (/t/ sound) "played" (/d/ sound) "wanted" (/ɪd/ sound) 2. Morphological Allomorph A morphological allomorph changes completely in form. It replaces one form of a morpheme with another. Examples: The past tense of "go...

Morphology is the study of how words are formed. It looks at the small parts that make up words and how they work together. These small parts are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a word. Some morphemes can stand alone as words. These are called free morphemes. Examples include "book" and "run." Other morphemes cannot stand alone and need to be attached to another word. These are called bound morphemes. Examples include "-s" in "books" and "-ing" in "running." Morphology is important because it helps us understand how words change. It explains why we add endings like "-ed" to show the past or "-er" to compare things. It also helps us learn new words by breaking them into smaller parts. Morphology is connected to other areas of language. It links to phonology, which studies sounds. It connects to syntax, which looks at sentence structure. It also relates to meaning, which is stu...

Jacques Derrida was one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century. He developed the concept of deconstruction, which changed the way people think about language, literature, and philosophy. His ideas challenged traditional ways of understanding meaning and truth. His works continue to influence scholars in many fields, including literature, philosophy, and cultural studies. Jacques Derrida was born in 1930 in Algeria. He studied philosophy in France at the École Normale Supérieure. He was deeply influenced by philosophers such as Martin Heidegger, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Ferdinand de Saussure. He became a professor and spent his career teaching and writing about philosophy and literature. His ideas gained recognition in the 1960s, and he became one of the most important thinkers of his time. Jacques Derrida’s writing was complex and challenging. He played with language and questioned traditional ideas about meaning. He often used long and detailed arguments to s...

F. R. Leavis was one of the most important literary critics of the twentieth century. He changed the way people studied literature by focusing on the quality of writing and its impact on readers. His ideas shaped modern literary criticism and influenced many scholars and students. F. R. Leavis was born in 1895 in England. He studied at the University of Cambridge, where he developed a strong interest in literature. He became a professor and dedicated his life to teaching and writing about literature. He believed that literature should be studied seriously because it helps people understand life, emotions, and human values. F. R. Leavis wrote in a clear and direct way. He focused on analyzing literature deeply and carefully. He believed that literature should have moral and artistic value. He did not just summarize books but examined their themes, language, and effects on readers. His writing was critical, thoughtful, and sometimes controversial. Famous Works by F. R. Leavis New ...

J. C. Ransom was one of the most influential literary critics and poets of the twentieth century. He played a major role in the development of the New Criticism movement. His works focused on close reading and the analysis of literary texts. His ideas changed the way literature was studied and understood. His influence on modern literary criticism remains significant. J. C. Ransom was born in 1888 in the United States. He studied at Vanderbilt University and later became a professor of English. He was part of a group of poets known as the Fugitives. He wrote poetry that reflected themes of tradition, modernity, and human experience. He later turned to literary criticism and became one of the leading figures of the New Criticism movement. J. C. Ransom’s writing was analytical, precise, and intellectual. He focused on the structure, language, and meaning of literary works. He believed that literature should be studied as an independent art form. He emphasized the importance of close r...

Ivor Armstrong Richards (1893–1979) was one of the most influential literary critics and theorists of the 20th century. He is often called the father of modern literary criticism because he introduced a new, scientific, and psychological approach to the interpretation of literature. Richards changed the way people read poetry by focusing on how language works and how readers respond to it. His theories laid the foundation for New Criticism , a method that emphasizes close reading and the detailed analysis of the literary text. Richards's major works include The Meaning of Meaning (1923), Principles of Literary Criticism (1924), Practical Criticism (1929), and The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936). His ideas continue to influence literary studies, language teaching, and communication theory. Early Life and Education I. A. Richards was born in Cheshire, England, and studied philosophy and moral sciences at Cambridge University. His background in psychology, philosophy, and lin...

Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist who revolutionized the study of language. His theories laid the foundation for modern linguistics and structuralism. His ideas influenced various fields, including literature, anthropology, and philosophy. Ferdinand de Saussure was born in 1857 in Geneva, Switzerland. He showed an early interest in languages and studied Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. He attended the University of Leipzig, where he earned his doctorate in linguistics. He later became a professor at the University of Geneva, where he developed his groundbreaking theories on language structure. Ferdinand de Saussure’s writing style was analytical and precise. He focused on clear definitions and logical arguments. His ideas were complex, but he presented them in a structured way. He used examples from different languages to support his theories. His approach was systematic, making his work influential in academic discussions. Famous Work: Course in General Linguistics Ferdinand ...

Anandavardhana was an important literary theorist in ancient India. He introduced the concept of Dhvani , which means "suggestion" in poetry. His work transformed Sanskrit poetics by emphasizing the power of implied meaning. His theories influenced later scholars and shaped Indian literary criticism. Anandavardhana was born in the 9th century in Kashmir. He was a scholar of Sanskrit literature and philosophy. He studied various schools of Indian aesthetics, including Alankara (figures of speech) and Rasa (emotional essence). He was deeply influenced by earlier literary critics like Bharata and Bhamaha. He combined different ideas to create a new approach to poetry. His most important contribution was his theory of Dhvani , which he explained in his famous work Dhvanyaloka . Anandavardhana’s writing style was analytical and philosophical. He used examples from classical Sanskrit poetry to support his theories. He explained how poetry works through suggestion rather than d...

Derek Walcott was a poet and playwright from Saint Lucia. He was one of the most important voices in Caribbean literature. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1992. His works explored themes of colonial history, cultural identity, and the beauty of the Caribbean landscape. His poetry combined European literary traditions with Caribbean heritage. Derek Walcott was born in 1930 in Castries, Saint Lucia. He grew up in a colonial society influenced by both African and European cultures. He studied at the University of the West Indies. He published his first collection of poetry when he was a teenager. He later became a playwright and founded a theater company. His works reflected the history and struggles of the Caribbean people. Derek Walcott’s writing style was rich and lyrical. He used vivid imagery and detailed descriptions to bring the Caribbean landscape to life. His works blended English, French, and African influences. He often wrote about history, colonialism, and personal ...

Wole Soyinka is a Nigerian playwright, poet, and essayist. He is one of the most important literary figures in Africa. He became the first African to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986. His works focus on politics, culture, and human rights. He has used his writing to criticize corruption and injustice. Wole Soyinka was born in 1934 in Abeokuta, Nigeria. He studied English literature at the University of Ibadan and later at the University of Leeds in England. He worked in theater and became a playwright. His plays mixed traditional African storytelling with Western literary styles. He was involved in politics and was imprisoned during Nigeria’s civil war. Wole Soyinka’s writing is complex and deep. He uses rich language and symbolism to express his ideas. His plays often mix comedy and tragedy. He includes Yoruba mythology and African traditions in his works. He writes about political struggles and the fight for freedom. His style is bold and challenging, making readers think...

Lorraine Hansberry was an important American playwright and activist. She was the first Black woman to have a play performed on Broadway. Her most famous work, A Raisin in the Sun , showed the struggles of a Black family facing racism and poverty. Her plays talked about equality, justice, and the dreams of African Americans. Lorraine Hansberry was born in 1930 in Chicago. Her family faced racial discrimination, which influenced her writing. She studied at the University of Wisconsin but left to become a writer. She moved to New York and worked as a journalist before writing plays. Lorraine Hansberry’s style was realistic and powerful. She used natural dialogue to make her characters feel real. She focused on deep emotions and personal struggles. Her plays mixed personal stories with political and social issues. She used symbolism and imagery to highlight the themes of race, dreams, and injustice. Her storytelling was both poetic and direct, making her plays deeply moving and thought...

Edward Albee was one of the most influential American playwrights of the 20th century. He wrote plays that explored human relationships, social conflicts, and the struggles of identity. His works often challenged traditional ideas and presented deep psychological themes. He was known for his sharp dialogue and thought-provoking storytelling. Edward Albee was born in 1928 in Washington, D.C. He was adopted by a wealthy family but felt disconnected from them. He developed an early interest in literature and theater. He moved to New York City, where he wrote his first play. He became famous in the 1960s when his works gained recognition for their originality and bold themes. Edward Albee’s plays were known for their strong characters and deep conversations. He explored themes of truth, illusion, love, and isolation. His plays often showed troubled relationships and the struggles of individuals in society. He combined realism with elements of the Theatre of the Absurd , making his works...

Arthur Miller was one of the greatest American playwrights. He wrote plays about social issues, personal struggles, and moral conflicts. His works explored themes of truth, justice, and the American Dream. His plays are still performed and studied around the world. Arthur Miller was born in 1915 in New York City. He grew up during the Great Depression, which influenced his writing. He studied at the University of Michigan, where he began writing plays. He gained recognition in the 1940s when his plays started receiving critical acclaim. His works reflected the struggles of ordinary people and the moral dilemmas they faced. Arthur Miller’s plays had realistic dialogue and strong characters. He explored themes of guilt, betrayal, and responsibility. His works often questioned social values and personal integrity. His plays focused on the struggles of individuals against society. He used simple language, but his messages were powerful. Famous Works by Arthur Miller 1. All My Sons (19...

Tennessee Williams was one of the most famous playwrights in American literature. He wrote plays about human emotions, personal struggles, and social issues. His characters were deep and realistic. His plays are still performed and loved around the world. Tennessee Williams was born in 1911 in Mississippi, USA. He had a difficult childhood and faced many struggles in his family. He loved reading and writing from a young age. He studied at the University of Missouri but later continued his education elsewhere. He started by writing short stories and plays. In the 1940s, he became famous when his plays were performed on Broadway.  Tennessee Williams’ plays were emotional and poetic. His characters faced problems like loneliness, love, and mental struggles. He wrote about reality and illusion, family conflicts, and the changing society of the American South. His plays had strong symbols and deep meanings. Famous Works by Tennessee Williams 1. The Glass Menagerie (1944) This play...

Tom Stoppard was one of the most important playwrights of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. His works were known for their wit, intelligence, and philosophical depth. His plays explored themes of free will, identity, art, and the nature of reality. His influence on modern theater was significant. Tom Stoppard was born in 1937 in Czechoslovakia. His family moved to England during World War II. He developed an interest in writing and started his career as a journalist. He later turned to playwriting and became famous for his unique blend of humor, philosophy, and wordplay. Tom Stoppard’s writing combined intellectual ideas with entertainment. His plays often used complex language and explored deep philosophical questions. His works frequently referenced literature, history, and science. His plays used clever dialogue, irony, and humor to engage the audience. His themes included fate, language, human consciousness, and the relationship between art and life. Famous Works by Tom...

Samuel Beckett was one of the most important playwrights and novelists of the twentieth century. His works were known for their minimalism, dark humor, and deep philosophical themes. His plays and novels explored human suffering, loneliness, and the search for meaning in life. His influence on modern literature and drama was profound. Samuel Beckett was born in 1906 in Ireland. He studied literature and languages at Trinity College, Dublin. He moved to France and worked as a teacher and writer. He was influenced by James Joyce and wrote both in English and French. His early works included poetry, essays, and novels. His experiences during World War II shaped his later writing. Samuel Beckett’s writing was simple and direct, but it carried deep meaning. His works often depicted characters trapped in meaningless situations. His plays used minimal settings and dialogue. His themes included human suffering, time, memory, and existential doubt. His works reflected the philosophy of absur...

Harold Pinter was one of the most influential playwrights of the twentieth century. His works were known for their unique dialogue, pauses, and exploration of human relationships. His plays often created a sense of mystery and tension. His impact on modern theater was profound. Harold Pinter was born in 1930 in London. He developed an interest in literature and drama at a young age. He studied acting and worked as a stage actor before becoming a playwright. His early experiences in theater shaped his understanding of dialogue and performance. Harold Pinter’s plays were famous for their pauses, silences, and ambiguity. His dialogues often seemed ordinary, but they carried hidden meanings. He created tension through understatement and indirect communication. His plays explored themes of power, dominance, fear, and the uncertainty of human relationships. He used simple settings to create deep psychological drama. Famous Works by Harold Pinter 1. The Birthday Party (1957) This play w...

John Millington Synge was one of the most important Irish playwrights of the twentieth century. His works captured the essence of Irish rural life with vivid language, humor, and deep emotions. His plays were known for their poetic beauty and realistic portrayal of Irish society. His contributions to Irish literature and theater were significant. John Millington Synge was born in 1871 in Ireland. He studied literature and music in Dublin and later traveled to Europe. During his time in France, he met W. B. Yeats, who encouraged him to explore Irish folklore and rural life for inspiration. This advice shaped his writing style and themes. He became one of the leading figures in the Irish Literary Revival. Synge’s plays were known for their rich language, strong characters, and deep connection to Irish culture. He used realistic dialogue that captured the speech patterns of rural Ireland. His works often explored themes of conflict, identity, and freedom. He portrayed the struggles and...

George Bernard Shaw was one of the most influential playwrights of the twentieth century. He was known for his sharp wit, strong social criticism, and unique writing style. His plays explored serious social issues while entertaining audiences with humor and clever dialogue. His influence on drama and literature remained significant. George Bernard Shaw was born in 1856 in Dublin, Ireland. He moved to London, where he struggled to establish himself as a writer. He worked as a music and theater critic before turning to playwriting. He was also deeply involved in politics and social movements. He was a supporter of socialism and an advocate for equality and justice. Shaw’s writing style was marked by wit, satire, and intellectual debates. His plays challenged traditional beliefs about society, class, gender, and morality. He used humor to highlight serious social problems. He believed that drama should educate as well as entertain. Famous Works by George Bernard Shaw 1. Mrs. Warren’s...

Oliver Goldsmith was an important writer of the eighteenth century. He was known for his contributions to poetry, drama, and prose. His works combined humor, sentiment, and social themes. His writing style was simple and elegant, which made his works enjoyable for readers. Oliver Goldsmith was born in 1728 in Ireland. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, but he did not have a clear career path. He tried different professions, including medicine and teaching. He later moved to London, where he became a writer. He wrote essays, poetry, and plays that gained popularity. Goldsmith’s writing was clear, simple, and filled with humor. He used satire to highlight social problems. His works focused on themes of rural life, morality, and human nature. He had a deep sympathy for the poor and often showed their struggles in his works. Famous Works by Oliver Goldsmith Poetry The Traveller (1764) This was a long poem about a traveler who visited different countries. It explored themes of...

John Webster was an important English playwright. He was famous for writing dark and emotional tragedies. His plays were filled with themes of power, betrayal, and revenge. His strong characters and deep storytelling made his works memorable. John Webster was born around 1580 in England. Little was known about his early life. He became a playwright during the late 1500s and early 1600s. He worked with other writers and wrote many plays. His most famous works were tragedies. Webster’s plays had strong emotions and powerful language. His stories showed how power and greed could destroy people. He created strong female characters who suffered because of a cruel society. His plays were dark, but they were also deeply moving. Famous Works by John Webster Tragedies The White Devil (1612) This play told the story of a noblewoman named Vittoria. She was caught in a world of crime and betrayal. The play showed how ambition and power could lead to downfall. The Duchess of Malfi (16...

William Congreve was an important playwright of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. He was known for his sharp wit and clever dialogue. His plays captured the spirit of Restoration comedy, which focused on love, marriage, and social manners. His works influenced later playwrights and are still performed today. William Congreve was born in 1670 in England. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, where he developed an interest in literature. He later moved to London and began writing plays. His first play was successful, and he quickly became famous for his comedies. His works reflected the culture and society of his time. Congreve’s plays had clever dialogue and well-developed characters. His humor was sharp, and his stories focused on love, deception, and social class. He wrote about relationships and the way people behaved in high society. His plays often showed the contrast between true love and marriage for wealth or status. Famous Works by William Congreve 1. T...

Thomas Middleton was an important playwright in the early 1600s. He wrote many plays that showed the problems of society. His works had humor, tragedy, and strong messages. He wrote about power, greed, and human nature. His plays were popular and are still studied today. Thomas Middleton was born in 1580 in London, England. He studied at Queen’s College, Oxford. He became a writer and worked for theaters in London. He wrote many kinds of plays, including comedies and tragedies. His writing was sharp and realistic. Middleton’s plays had strong characters and interesting stories. He wrote about corruption, love, and ambition. He used humor to show the problems in society. His works mixed comedy and tragedy, making them unique. Famous Works by Thomas Middleton 1. A Trick to Catch the Old One (1605) This comedy is about a young man who tricks a greedy old man. It shows how people use lies to gain wealth. 2. The Revenger’s Tragedy (1606) This tragedy is about a man who wants reven...

Thomas Nashe was one of the most important writers of the Elizabethan period. He was known for his sharp wit, satirical style, and lively prose. He wrote pamphlets, plays, and poetry that captured the spirit of his time. His works provided insight into the social, political, and literary culture of the late sixteenth century. Thomas Nashe was born in 1567 in Suffolk, England. He studied at the University of Cambridge, where he developed an interest in literature and classical studies. He moved to London and became a writer. He was known for his bold opinions and lively writing style. His works often challenged authorities and criticized social issues. Thomas Nashe’s writing style was energetic, humorous, and satirical. He used sharp language and vivid imagery to entertain and provoke readers. He explored themes of poverty, corruption, and the struggles of writers. He often attacked his literary rivals, which led to conflicts with other writers of his time. His works reflected his ke...

Seneca was one of the most important philosophers of ancient Rome. He was a leading figure in Stoic philosophy, which focused on self-control, virtue, and resilience. He was also a playwright, statesman, and advisor to Emperor Nero. His writings on ethics, life, and wisdom have influenced many generations. Seneca was born in 4 BCE in Corduba, Spain. He moved to Rome at a young age to study philosophy and rhetoric. He became known for his intelligence and eloquence. He gained political power and served in the Roman Senate. He later became an advisor to Emperor Nero. However, his association with Nero led to conflicts, and he was eventually forced to take his own life. Seneca’s philosophy was based on Stoicism. He believed that people should accept life’s hardships with calmness and reason. He taught that happiness comes from virtue, not wealth or status. He encouraged self-discipline, inner strength, and living in harmony with nature. His writings provided practical advice on handling e...

Morality Plays are a type of medieval drama that emerged in the 15th and 16th centuries , designed to teach moral lessons through allegorical characters. These plays were used to educate audiences about Christian virtues and the struggle between good and evil in human life. Features of Morality Plays: Allegorical Characters – The characters represent abstract concepts like Virtue, Vice, Death, Good Deeds, Knowledge, and the Devil . Moral and Religious Lessons – The plays teach lessons about right and wrong, sin, and redemption . The Journey of the Soul – The protagonist often represents "Everyman" , symbolizing humanity’s spiritual struggle. Personification of Good and Evil – Good and bad forces fight to influence the main character’s choices. Simple and Didactic – The plays were easy to understand, ensuring that common people could learn moral values. Examples of Morality Plays: "Everyman" – The most famous morality play, where Everyman (represe...

William Blake was one of the most unique and influential poets of the Romantic era. He was known for his mystical poetry and visionary artwork. His works explored themes of imagination, spirituality, and social justice. His combination of poetry and visual art made him a distinctive figure in English literature. His influence extended beyond his time, shaping later poets, artists, and thinkers. William Blake was born in 1757 in London. He showed an early talent for drawing and poetry. He was trained as an engraver and later developed his own artistic techniques. He studied literature, philosophy, and religion. He was influenced by biblical themes and visionary experiences. His artistic skills and poetic imagination shaped his unique style. William Blake’s poetry explored themes of innocence, experience, freedom, and divine inspiration. He believed that imagination was the highest form of human understanding. His works often contrasted the purity of childhood with the corruption of s...

Jiddu Krishnamurti was one of the most influential spiritual thinkers of the twentieth century. He was known for his teachings on self-inquiry, freedom, and truth. His philosophy rejected organized religion, authority, and traditional beliefs. His ideas emphasized personal observation and understanding. His influence on modern thought inspired individuals to seek truth through direct experience rather than external doctrines. Jiddu Krishnamurti was born in 1895 in India. He was discovered by the Theosophical Society at a young age. He was considered a potential spiritual leader. He was educated under their guidance. He traveled to different countries and studied various philosophies. He was expected to become the world teacher of a new spiritual movement. Jiddu Krishnamurti’s teachings focused on self-awareness and freedom from conditioned thinking. He believed that truth could not be found in religious institutions or traditional beliefs. He encouraged people to question their thou...